The Carlsbad Decrees (1819) – a tool of repression
The Carlsbad Decrees were a series of repressive measures adopted by the leading representatives of the German federal states at the Carlsbad Conference in 1819. They were a reaction to the liberal and nationalist movements following the Napoleonic Wars and to the assassination attempt on the conservative writer August von Kotzebue by the fraternity member Karl Ludwig Sand.
Main provisions of the Carlsbad Resolutions (1819)
University surveillance
- Introduction of state watchdogs (‘curators’) at universities.
- Dismissal of liberal-minded professors.
- Ban on fraternities (nationally-minded student associations).
Press censorship
- Strict pre-censorship for all printed matter under 20 sheets (approx. 320 pages).
- Ban on writings that were considered ‘revolutionary’ or ‘anti-state’.
Central Investigation Commission in Mainz
This authority (1820-1827) systematically monitored ‘revolutionary activities’. It collected reports on suspects, carried out house searches and initiated trials.
Restriction of freedom of expression
Persecution of people who spread national or liberal ideas.
Objectives of the Carlsbad Resolutions
- Suppression of the liberal and nationalist movement (e.g. the fraternities).
- Restoration of the old monarchical order after the Congress of Vienna (1815).
- Prevention of a possible French-style revolution.
Consequences
- The resolutions led to a restorative era under the leadership of Austrian Chancellor Metternich (‘Metternich Restoration’).
- Many liberal and national activists were persecuted, imprisoned or fled into exile (‘persecution of demagogues’).
- The measures remained in force until the revolution of 1848/49.
The Carlsbad Decrees are regarded as one of the most important instruments of repression of the German Confederation and symbolise the struggle between reaction and liberal-national reform efforts in the pre-March period.
Political persecution in the German Confederation
The Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 established a repressive system to suppress liberal and nationalist movements in the German Confederation. They led to numerous cases of political persecution, particularly against intellectuals, students and professors. Here is an overview of the best-known cases:
Persecution of fraternity members
- Karl Ludwig Sand: The assassin of August von Kotzebue (March 1819) was executed. His murder served as a pretext for the resolutions and triggered a wave of persecution against fraternities.
- Ban on fraternities: All student fraternities with a national orientation were dissolved. Members were monitored, arrested or expelled from universities (e.g. in Jena, Heidelberg, Göttingen).
Dismissal of professors
- ‘Göttingen Seven’ (1837): Seven professors at the University of Göttingen (including the Brothers Grimm) protested against the abolition of the constitution in the Kingdom of Hanover and were dismissed or expelled from the country.
- Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (‘Jahn the father of gymnastics’): The founder of the gymnastics movement was arrested in 1819 and placed under house arrest until 1825, as his activities were considered ‘demagogic’.
- Ernst Moritz Arndt: The nationalist writer and professor was suspended in 1820 because his writings were categorised as ‘inciting the people’.
Censorship and persecution of writers
- Heinrich Heine: Flew to Paris in 1831 after his works were banned in Germany.
- Georg Büchner: Published writings critical of the regime such as Der Hessische Landbote (1834) underground and had to go into exile.
- Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben: The poet of the later national anthem (‘Song of the Germans’) lost his professorship in Breslau in 1842 due to ‘political unreliability’.
Biedermeier culture and political persecution
Die Biedermeier-Zeit (1815–1848) war eine Epoche des Rückzugs ins Private, geprägt von häuslicher Idylle, Kunst und Literatur – doch hinter dieser scheinbaren Harmonie verbarg sich ein Klima politischer Unterdrückung.
Escape into the private sphere
- Background: After the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), a repressive restoration policy prevailed in the German Confederation under Metternich. Many citizens withdrew from public life for fear of persecution.
- Characteristics:
- Home Décor: Simple, functional furniture (“Biedermeier furniture”), cozy living spaces, and an idealized family life.
- Art & Literature: Apolitical themes such as nature, homeland, and domesticity (e.g., works by Adalbert Stifter, Eduard Mörike).
- Music & Sociability: Domestic music-making, salons, and Schubertiaden as retreats.
Culture as a Response to Oppression
The seemingly apolitical Biedermeier era was also a form of silent protest.
- The emphasis on harmony and privacy was a reaction to stifling censorship.
- At the same time, repression fostered a dual society: while the bourgeoisie withdrew into domestic life, oppositional groups radicalized underground.
Consequences of Political Persecution in the German Confederation
Delay in Democratization
Due to the intimidation of the population, many people avoided expressing political opinions.
Shift of Opposition into Secrecy
Secret societies such as the “Black Society” (Schwarze Gesellschaft) emerged.
Radicalization of the Opposition
Many no longer sought peaceful reform but began to view violence as a solution.
Uprisings and Protests
Initial unrest in the 1830s ultimately led to the Revolution of 1848.